Pink Ribbons, Blue Moons, and Silver Linings: Communicating, Coping, and Caring

DOI: 10.1080/10410236.2010.49682

Training Practice as Communication Medium: A Throughput Model

We join the ORGanic conversation by introducing our throughput-based approach to evaluating organizational training. Our investigation of organizational training is organic in two senses. First, organic describes how fundamental elements in nature relate in dynamic interconnections and constitute the very substance of life itself. We argue that organizational training comes to life through the dynamic interconnections among the fundamental elements of all training (Quinn, Anderson, & Finkelstein, 1996) . Employee education and learning programs are increasingly being treated as integral organizational functions Training programs are a context ripe for investigation given that training is a complex, communicative activity Taking a process approach to training evaluation allows for the assessment of training practice, or the essence of actual training sessions. Instead of inputs and outputs, training practice examines the throughputs, or what transforms the inputs into outputs. In training, this consists of the manner in which training messages are communicated to trainees. A myriad of observable components comprise training practice. Training activities, handouts, complexity of material, the opportunity for trainees to become acquainted, and enthusiasm of the trainer are all examples found in training sessions. This essay argues that training evaluation should be expanded beyond the current conventions assessing training objectives and outcomes. Both are important to training program evaluation; however, examining the ways in which objectives are accomplished and outcomes are produced may provide trainers with a systematic way of considering their communication as the medium of training as it occurs. This essay explains the communicative nature of three integral dimensions of any training practice within any training program: content, process, and trainer. First, training can only occur when content or subject matter is communicated to trainees. Second, the manner or process in which the trainer communicates content is critical to the success of training program outcomes. Third, characteristics of the trainer when communicating content and facilitating the training process creates a relationship (positive or negative) with trainees. Communication ties the three dimensions together, as it is the mechanism through which the trainer conducts his or her activity. Further in professional skill training (as presented in the four cases that follow), better communication skills are also the outcomes (also see Approaches to Training Evaluation The impetus for training is to develop individuals' job-related skill set One model of training evaluation in particular-- Despite its prominence, Kirkpatrick's model has received considerable criticism over the years, particularly for its inability to assess learning Training Practice as Communication 4 Ultimately, the model's usefulness is questionable Perhaps, the most comprehensive training system design is that of A specific framework for conducting either a formative or summative evaluation is the CIPP model Evaluations of Training Process, Training Content, and Trainer Calls for more sophisticated models of evaluation suggest Kirkpatrick's model may have run its course The PETP model does not replace nor discount the evaluation of learning outcomes; indeed, these are crucial to assess. However, evaluators seem to have too quickly jumped to evaluating outcomes instead of first evaluating training activities, their content, and the trainer--components comprised of, or that rely on, communication. The PETP model proposes an approach for examining three interrelated constructs central to the training experience as a communicative process. Results of this type of formative evaluation would assist trainers in designing and delivering training, increase the chances of obtaining desired outcomes, and help those responsible for training determine why trainees' favorable evaluations do not necessarily result in learning. The PETP model is comprised of two frames that outline three integral dimensions to any training scenario: content, process, and trainer. The model is based on field observations made of four separate training programs aimed at teaching professional skills of the type documented by Madlock (2008; e.g., collaboration, communication competence, leadership). In the remainder of this essay, contextual information about each case will be provided, followed by explanation of the process through which the model was developed. After presenting the model, examples from one case study are presented to demonstrate how the training dimensions of content, process, and trainer can result in both favorable and unfavorable outcomes as evaluated by both evaluator and participant. Description of Cases and Data Collection While different in objectives, training participants, and locations within one state, formats were fairly consistent across all four training programs observed. Each was a multi-session program in which individuals representing various organizations came together at a neutral site for multiple days. Trainers were different for each session, as were training topics. All training programs were implemented by advocacy organizations promoting social, economic, or political causes Community Leadership The first program, Community Leadership (CL; this and other organizational names are pseudonyms), was a seven-month leadership training program in which 25 members were selected via an application process. Some training participants held supervisory positions (e.g., museum administrator, private school principal) whereas others had few formal supervisory duties (e.g., teacher, community volunteer). The goal of the program was to grow community leaders, educating them about various aspects of their community. Training Practice as Communication 6 Each training day consisted of multiple training units, and was conducted by multiple trainers (generally 10 to 15 trainers per day). Training sessions consisted of invited speakers, group activities and assignments, and discussions. In addition to a two-day, 22-hour retreat at the outset of the program, training participants attended one class per month, each lasting approximately 9½ hours. Two of the researchers were part of a four-person evaluation team who observed the 89 hours of class meetings, of which the vast majority was comprised of training sessions. Field notes were taken during meetings State Leadership Initiatives The second and third training programs, State Leadership Initiatives (SLI), were held two consecutive years (SLI1 and SLI2). Thirty-four trainees (68 total) were selected for each round of training; all were employees of state agencies or state organizations. The goal of the programs was to create a network among state agency employees in order to facilitate collaboration among various agencies with the ultimate goal of improving children's health. Each training program consisted of 9 days (approximately 8 hours each), in either oneday or two-day sessions across a six month time period. Each session had different trainers (one to three trainers per day) as well as a different theme (i.e., seeing the big picture, facilitating collaborative leadership, partnering with the community). Group activities, discussions, and lectures comprised training sessions. We were members of an evaluation team who observed approximately 136 hours of SLI1 and SLI2 training sessions. Field notes were taken during sessions, resulting in 360 pages of field notes. Copies of all training materials and correspondence from the training program executive were collected, resulting in 418 pages. Consenting training participants also completed surveys at three points during the training program. Finally, approximately four to six months following the training, two members of the evaluation team conducted follow-up interviews with training participants at their agency offices, resulting in 944 pages of double-spaced transcripts. One State The fourth training program, One State (OS), took a train-the-trainer approach. This training program was conducted for 123 trainees across five sites within the state. All training participants were selected by one state agency; training participants were either employees of this state agency or employees of the agency's community partners (e.g., United Way). The goal of this training program was to equip trainees with the skills and materials needed to conduct collaboration training within their organizations and communities. While the themes, curricula, and corresponding materials of each session remained consistent across training sites, the dates, trainers, and trainees varied by location. OS participants saw the same two trainers at each session. All of the trainers were employed by a Training Practice as Communication 7 university-affiliated community consulting group called University Community Consulting (UCC). UCC developed the training curriculum that featured a series of assignments, group activities, and discussions to teach concepts, as well as a model of how to teach the concepts to others. Three sessions, each two days in length, took place in various venues over the course of seven months. Two of the researchers were members of the evaluation team who observed the 50 hours of OS sessions at one of the five locations, resulting in 121 pages of field notes. All training sites used the same training manual, schedule, and activities, ensuring program consistency. Additionally, one member of the evaluation team attended a day-long follow-up session four months after the conclusion of the training program. Copies of all training materials used by the training participants were collected, resulting in 504 pages. Consenting training participants also completed online surveys at three points during the training program. Thus, across the four cases, we observed 283 hours of the training, and gathered data from 216 trainees in the field. Also, 141 trainers were observed delivering these training experiences (CL had at least 12 trainers per day, while the remaining three training programs utilized two to four trainers each day). We witnessed both the formal training programs, as well as informal interactions among trainees, among trainers, and between trainees and trainers. Observations resulted in 731 pages of field notes and 1154 pages of training participant interview transcripts, and 1072 pages of training documents. Across the four cases, there were slightly more female than males; trainees ranged between late 20s to early 50s, and were predominantly Caucasian. Conundrums in the Field After observing these training programs, it was clear to us that commonly used training evaluation models (e.g., Two conundrums arising from our three-year experience in the field prompted us to reflect on these data collected across four training programs. First, training participants' assessment of the training almost never matched our assessment of the training. Second, we could not identify a systematic way to reconcile those differences. Thus, we posed the following question: RQ: How do trainees and professional evaluators construct evaluations of training quality? Data Analysis Similar to Zorn, Page, and Cheney's (2000) case study investigation of a New Zealand city government's planned change process, the interpretive model offered here was not conceived a priori, nor did it necessarily emerge from the data Our conversations underscored the necessary distinction between communication as the medium of training and communication as the outcome of training. Simultaneously, however, we tried not to privilege our assessment of training quality (i.e., whether or not the training achieved its outcomes; Results and Interpretation Across Four Cases Examining training practice, rather than just training outcomes allowed us to achieve a nuanced explanation of the communicative processes that influence individual and organizational outcomes. Three communicative dimensions-training content, training process, and trainerwere found to be used either implicitly or explicitly by both training participants and evaluators when evaluating training in each of the four cases. Over time, patterns were observed in how the audiences of training participants and evaluators viewed the interrelation of the dimensions. These consistently contradictory evaluations led us to propose dual perspectives best represented by a paired model. Each of these dimensions is defined and applied to the cases, followed by an overview of the PETP model

Group Interaction Frontiers in Technology

Over the last decade, the study of group behavior for multimodal interaction technologies has increased. However, we believe that despite its potential benefits on society, there could be more activity in this area. The aim of this workshop is create a forum for more interdisciplinary dialogue on this topic to enable the acceleration of growth. The workshop has been very successful in attracting submissions addressing important facets in the context of technologies for analyzing and aiding groups. This paper provides a summary of the activities of the workshop and the accepted papers

Approaches to Understanding and Measuring Interdisciplinary Scientific Research (IDR): A Review of the Literature

Interdisciplinary scientific research (IDR) challenges the study of science from a number of fronts, including one of creating output science and engineering (S&E) indicators. This literature review began with a narrow focus on quantitative measures of the output of IDR, but expanded the scope as it became clear that differing definitions, assessment tools, evaluation processes, and measures all shed light on aspects of IDR. Key among the broader aspects are (a) characterizing the concept of knowledge integration, and (b) recognizing that it can occur within a single mind or as the result of team dynamics. Output measures alone cannot adequately capture this process. Among the quantitative measures considered, bibliometrics (co-authorships, collaborations, references, citations and co-citations) are the most developed, but leave considerable gaps in understanding. Emerging measures in diversity, entropy, and network dynamics are promising, but require sophisticated interpretations and thus would not serve well as S&E indicators. Combinations of quantitative and qualitative assessments coming from evaluation studies appear to reveal S&E processes but carry burdens of expense, intrusion, and lack of reproducibility. This review is a first step toward providing a more holistic view of measuring IDR; several avenues for future research highlight the need for metrics to reflect the actual practice of IDR

Advancing the Science of Team Science

The First Annual International Science of Team Science (SciTS) Conference was held in Chicago, IL April 22-24, 2010. This article presents a summary of the Conference proceedings. Clin Trans Sci 2010; Volume 3: 263-266

Communication research : asking, questions, finding answers

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Communication research : asking questions, finding answers

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Communication research : Asking Question,finding answers

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Problematic Integration Theory, Appraisal Theory, and the Bosom Buddies Breast Cancer Support Group

Abstract OnlyProblematic integration (Babrow, 1992) and appraisal (Lazarus, 1991) theories are utilized to analyze the beneficial coping and social support produced within the discourse of Bosom Buddies, a breast cancer support group. Transcripts of eight weekly group meetings were coded for assessments of the probabilities and evaluations of outcomes, information seeking, and information avoidance, as well as for positive reappraisal, problem-focused coping, sense making (Harber & Pennebaker, 1992), and emotional disclosure (Pennebaker, 1997). Results indicated that all constructs other than information avoidance, especially those drawn from problematic integration theory, were employed regularly. Most constructs were prevalent in these real-time interactive conversations. Practical applications of the constructs are recommended for breast cancer support group members and facilitators